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Principles of Economics

Edição BooksWhale em inglês por Alfred Marshall

Marshall’s influential synthesis of supply, demand, value, cost, welfare, and economic reasoning.

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Principles of Economics

Principles of Economics helped shape modern microeconomic analysis while keeping economics connected to ordinary business and social life. Marshall’s concepts of supply and demand, elasticity, time periods, and consumer surplus remain foundational.

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Alfred Marshall died in 1924, and Principles of Economics was first published in 1890. These dates support the public-domain basis for this English original edition.

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Principles of Economics

Alfred Marshall

Capítulo de préviaPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.Prévia

Economic conditions are constantly changing, and each generation looks at its own problems in its own way. In England, as well as on the Continent and in America, Eco- nomic studies are being more vigorously pursued now than ever before; but all this activity has only shown the more clearly that Economic science is, and must be, one of slow and continuous growth. Some of the best work of the present generation has indeed appeared at first sight to be antagonistic to that of earlier writers; but when it has had time to settle down into its proper place, and its rough edges have been worn away, it has been found to involve no real breach of continuity in the development of the science. The new doctrines have supplemented the older, have extended, developed, and sometimes corrected them, and often have given them a different tone by a new distribution of emphasis; but very seldom have subverted them.

The present treatise is an attempt to present a modern version of old doctrines with the aid of the new work, and with reference to the new problems, of our own age. Its general scope and purpose are indicated in Book I.; at the end of which a short account is given of what are taken to be the chief subjects of economic inquiry, and the chief practical issues on which that inquiry has a bearing. In accordance with English traditions, it is held that the function of the science is to collect, arrange and analyse economic facts, and to apply the know- ledge, gained by observation and experience, in determining what are likely to be the immediate and ultimate effects of various groups of causes; and it is held that the Laws of

Economics are statements of tendencies expressed in the indicative mood, and not ethical precepts in the imperative. Economic laws and reasonings in fact are merely a part of the material which Conscience and Common-sense have to turn to account in solving practical problems, and in laying down rules which may be a guide in life.

But ethical forces are among those of which the economist has to take account. Attempts have indeed been made to construct an abstract science with regard to the actions of an “economic man,” who is under no ethical influences and who pursues pecuniary gain warily and energetically, but mechanic- ally and selfishly. But they have not been successful, nor even thoroughly carried out. For they have never really treated the economic man as perfectly selfish: no one could be relied on better to endure toil and sacrifice with the unselfish desire to make provision for his family; and his normal motives have always been tacitly assumed to include the family affec- tions. But if they include these, why should they not include all other altruistic motives the action of which is so far uniform in any class at any time and place, that it can be reduced to general rule? There seems to be no reason; and in the present book normal action is taken to be that which may be expected, under certain conditions, from the members of an industrial group; and no attempt is made to exclude the influence of any motives, the action of which is regular, merely because they are altruistic. If the book has any special character of its own, that may perhaps be said to lie in the prominence which it gives to this and other applications of the Principle of Continuity.

This principle is applied not only to the ethical quality of the motives by which a man may be influenced in choosing his ends, but also to the sagacity, the energy and the enterprise with which he pursues those ends. Thus stress is laid on the fact that there is a continuous gradation from the actions of

’ which are based on deliberate and far-reaching

“city men,’

Capítulo de préviaPREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION.Prévia

Tuts edition is a reprint of the seventh, which was almost a reprint of the sixth, the only changes being in small matters of detail: the Preface is almost the same as in the seventh edition.

It is now thirty years since the first edition of this volume implied a promise that a second volume, completing the treatise, would appear within a reasonable time. But I had laid my plan on too large a scale; and its scope widened, es- pecially on the realistic side, with every pulse of that Industrial Revolution of the present generation, which has far outdone the changes of a century ago, in both rapidity and breadth of movement. So ere long I was compelled to abandon my hope of completing the work in two volumes. My subsequent plans were changed more than once; partly by the course of events, partly by my other engagements, and the decline of my strength.

Industry and Trade, published in 1919, is in effect a con- tinuation of the present volume. A third (on Trade, Finance and the Industrial Future) is far advanced. The three volumes are designed to deal with all the chief problems of economics, so far as the writer’s power extends.

The present volume therefore remains as a general intro- duction to the study of economic science; similar in some respects, though not in all, to that of volumes on Foundations (Grundlagen), which Roscher and some other economists have put in the forefront of groups of semi-independent volumes on economics. It avoids such special topics as currency and the organization of markets: and, in regard to such matters as the

structure of industry, employment, and the problem of wages, it deals mainly with normal conditions.

Economic evolution is gradual. Its progress is sometimes arrested or reversed by political catastrophes: but its forward movements are never sudden; for even in the Western world and in Japan it is based on habit, partly conscious, partly unconscious. And though an inventor, or an organizer, or a financier of genius may seem to have modified the economic structure of a people almost at a stroke; yet that part of his influence, which has not been merely superficial and transitory, is found on inquiry to have done little more than bring to a head a broad constructive movement which had long been in preparation. Those manifestations of nature which occur most frequently, and are so orderly that they can be closely watched and narrowly studied, are the basis of economic as of most other scientific work; while those which are spasmodic, in- - frequent, and difficult of observation, are commonly reserved for special examination at a later stage: and the motto Natura non facit saltum is specially appropriate to a volume on Eco- nomic Foundations.

An illustration of this contrast may be taken from the distribution of the study of large businesses between the present volume and that on Industry and Trade. When any branch of industry offers an open field for new firms which rise to the first rank, and perhaps after a time decay, the normal cost of production in it can be estimated with reference to “a repre- sentative firm,” which enjoys a fair share both of those internal economies which belong to a well-organized individual business, and of those general or external economies which arise out of the collective organization of the district as a whole. A study of such a firm belongs properly to a volume on Foundations. So also does a study of the principles on which a firmly estab- lished monopoly, in the hands of a Government department or a large railway, regulates its prices with main reference indeed

to its own revenue; but also with more or less consideration for the wellbeing of its customers.

But normal action falls into the background, when Trusts are striving for the mastery of a large market; when com- munities of interest are being made and unmade; and, above © all, when the policy of any particular establishment is likely to be governed, not with a single eye to its own business success, but in subordination to some lerge stock-exchange manceuvre, or some campaign for the control of markets. Such matters can- not be fitly discussed in a volume on Foundations: they belong to a volume dealing with some part of the Superstructure.

Sumário

Nesta edição

  1. 01Full text
  2. 02PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
  3. 03PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION.
  4. 04BOOK I.
  5. 05PRELIMINARY SURVEY.
  6. 06CHAPTER I.
  7. 07INTRODUCTION.
  8. 08INTRODUCTION
  9. 09I, 1, 4.
  10. 10I, 1, 5.
  11. 11THE GROWTH OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE
  12. 12I, 1,5.
  13. 13CHAPTER II. THE SUBSTANCE OF ECONOMICS.
  14. 14I, 1, 1.
  15. 15THE SUBSTANCE OF ECONOMICS
  16. 16THE QUALITY OF A MOTIVE EVADES MEASUREMENT
  17. 17M, 2
  18. 18ACCOUNT TO BE TAKEN OF HABIT AND CUSTOM
  19. 19CHAPTER IIL ECONOMIC GENERALIZATIONS OR LAWS.
  20. 20LIMITATIONS OF ECONOMIC LAWS
  21. 21ECONOMIC GENERALIZATIONS OR LAWS
  22. 22CHAPTER IV. THE ORDER AND AIMS OF ECONOMIC STUDIES.
  23. 23THE ORDER AND AIMS OF ECONOMIC STUDIES
  24. 24THE NEED FOR PERCEPTION, IMAGINATION AND REASON
  25. 25BOOK II.
  26. 26SOME FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS.
  27. 27INTRODUCTORY.
  28. 28INTRODUCTORY
  29. 29DL, 3; 3:
  30. 30CHAPTER II. WEALTH.
  31. 311), 2:
  32. 32WEALTH
  33. 33CHAPTER III. PRODUCTION. CONSUMPTION. LABOUR. NECESSARIES.
  34. 34PRODUCTION. CONSUMPTION. LABOUR. NECESSARIES
  35. 35PRODUCTIVE LABOUR : 65
  36. 36M. .
  37. 3766 PRODUCTION. CONSUMPTION. LABOUR. NECESSARIES
  38. 38PRODUCTION. CONSUMPTION. LABOUR. NECESSARIES
  39. 39PRODUCTION. CONSUMPTION. LABOUR. NECESSARIES
  40. 40CHAPTER IV. INCOME. CAPITAL.
  41. 41INCOME. CAPITAL
  42. 4276 INCOME. CAPITAL
  43. 43CAPITAL FROM THE SOCIAL POINT OF VIEW
  44. 4478 INCOME. CAPITAL
  45. 45CAPITAL AND INCOME FROM THE SOCIAL POINT OF VIEW
  46. 4680 INCOME. CAPITAL
  47. 47BOOK III.
  48. 48ON WANTS AND THEIR SATISFACTION,
  49. 49CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY.
  50. 50TU,.7, 2:
  51. 51THE POSITION OF THE STUDY OF WANTS IN ECONOMICS
  52. 52WANTS IN RELATION TO ACTIVITIES
  53. 53IIL, 1, 4.
  54. 54PROGRESSIVE ACTIVITIES
  55. 55CHAPTER III.
  56. 56TRANSITION TO MARKET DEMAND
  57. 57II, 11, 6.
  58. 58MARKET DEMAND
  59. 59CHAPTER IV. THE ELASTICITY OF WANTS.
  60. 60THE ELASTICITY OF WANTS
  61. 61NOTE ON STATISTICS OF CONSUMPTION
  62. 62CHAPTER V.
  63. 63CHOICE BETWEEN DIFFERENT USES OF THE SAME THING. IMMEDIATE AND DEFERRED USES.
  64. 64CHOICE BETWEEN DIFFERENT USES
  65. 65PRESENT AND FUTURE BENEFITS
  66. 66CHAPTER VI. VALUE AND UTILITY.
  67. 67VALUE AND UTILITY
  68. 68THIS ANALYSIS GIVES FORM TO FAMILIAR NOTIONS
  69. 69IV, 1, 1.
  70. 70RELATIONS BETWEEN AGENTS OF PRODUCTION
  71. 71UTILITY AND DISUTILITY OR COST
  72. 72IV, 1, 2.
  73. 73CHAPTER II.
  74. 74THE FERTILITY OF LAND.
  75. 75MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL CONDITIONS OF FERTILITY
  76. 76IV, 11, 3.
  77. 77THE FERTILITY OF LAND
  78. 78MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL CONDITIONS OF FERTILITY
  79. 79IV, 1, 4.
  80. 80THE FERTILITY OF LAND, CONTINUED. THE TENDENCY TO DIMINISHING RETURN.
  81. 81LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURN BASED ON EXPERIENCE
  82. 82LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURN
  83. 83IV, 111, 2.
  84. 84FAVOURITE SOILS OF EARLY SETTLERS
  85. 85A.D. 1829 58 48 34 20 8
  86. 86A.D, 1852 80 78 60 50 40
  87. 87CHAPTER IV. THE GROWTH OF POPULATION.
  88. 88GROWTH OF POPULATION
  89. 89HISTORY OF THE DOCTRINE OF POPULATION
  90. 90MARRIAGE-RATE
  91. 91CHAPTER V. THE HEALTH AND STRENGTH OF THE POPULATION.
  92. 92HEALTH AND STRENGTH
  93. 93HOPE, FREEDOM AND CHANGE
  94. 94&
  95. 95CHAPTER VI. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING.
  96. 96UNSKILLED LABOUR A RELATIVE TERM
  97. 97INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
  98. 98GENERAL AND SPECIALIZED ABILITY
  99. 99GENERAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION
  100. 100LATENT GENIUS AMONG THE WORKING CLASSES
  101. 101MOBILITY BETWEEN GRADES AND WITHIN GRADES
  102. 102CHAPTER VII. THE GROWTH OF WEALTH.
  103. 103GROWTH OF WEALTH
  104. 104MODERN FORMS OF WEALTH
  105. 105SLOW AND FITFUL GROWTH OF HABITS OF SAVING
  106. 106CHOICE BETWEEN PRESENT AND DEFERRED BENEFITS
  107. 107THE REWARD OF WAITING
  108. 108STATISTICAL NOTE ON THE GROWTH OF WEALTH
  109. 109CHAPTER VIII.
  110. 110INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION.
  111. 111STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL
  112. 112INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION
  113. 113PRINCIPLE OF HEREDITY ; : 245
  114. 114CHAPTER IX.
  115. 115INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION, CONTINUED. DIVISION OF LABOUR. THE INFLUENCE OF MACHINERY.
  116. 116DIVISION OF LABOUR
  117. 117ILLUSTRATIONS FROM WATCH-MAKING AND PRINTING
  118. 11817--2
  119. 119MACHINERY A MEANS, MAN ALSO. AN END OF WORK
  120. 120CHAPTER X.
  121. 121LOCALIZED INDUSTRIES
  122. 122THEIR VARIOUS ORIGINS
  123. 123CHANGES IN VOLUME OF ENGLISH INDUSTRIES
  124. 124OLD INDUSTRIAL WORK IN NEW FORMS
  125. 125CHAPTER XI.
  126. 126INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION, CONTINUED. PRODUCTION ON A LARGE SCALE.
  127. 127THE ECONOMY OF MATERIAL
  128. 128IV, XI, 2.
  129. 129PRODUCTION ON A LARGE SCALE
  130. 130LIMITS TO THE RAPID INCREASE OF A BUSINESS
  131. 131THE CARRYING TRADES. MINES
  132. 132CHAPTER XII.
  133. 133INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION, CONTINUED. BUSINESS MANAGEMENT.
  134. 134BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
  135. 135THE UNDERTAKER WHO IS NOT AN EMPLOYER
  136. 136HEREDITARY BUSINESSES
  137. 137PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS
  138. 138CHAPTER XIII.
  139. 139CONCLUSION. CORRELATION OF THE TENDENCIES TO INCREASING AND TO DIMINISHING RETURN.
  140. 140INCREASING AND DIMINISHING RETURNS
  141. 141BOOK V.
  142. 142GENERAL RELATIONS OF DEMAND, SUPPLY AND VALUE.
  143. 143INTRODUCTORY. ON MARKETS.
  144. 144V, 1,2.
  145. 145INTRODUCTORY. ON MARKETS
  146. 146HIGHLY ORGANIZED MARKETS
  147. 147LOCAL MARKETS
  148. 148CHAPTER II. TEMPORARY EQUILIBRIUM OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY.
  149. 149TEMPORARY EQUILIBRIUM OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY
  150. 150MARKET DAY IN A LOCAL CORN-EXCHANGE
  151. 151TEMPORARY EQUILIBRIUM OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY
  152. 152TEMPORARY EQUILIBRIUM OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY
  153. 153CHAPTER III. EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY.
  154. 154REAL COST OF PRODUCTION. FACTORS OF PRODUCTION 339
  155. 155V, 1, 3.
  156. 156EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY
  157. 157V, 1, 4.
  158. 158V, 1, 5.
  159. 159V1 7;
  160. 160UTILITY, COST OF PRODUCTION, AND VALUE
  161. 161- THE INVESTMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES
  162. 162THE INVESTMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES
  163. 163THE INVESTMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES
  164. 164THE INVESTMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES
  165. 165MARGINAL UTILITIES AND COSTS
  166. 166PRIME AND SUPPLEMENTARY COSTS
  167. 167THE INVESTMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES
  168. 168EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY, CONTINUED
  169. 169THE TERM NORMAL IS ELASTIC
  170. 170EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY, CONTINUED
  171. 171HYPOTHESIS OF A STATIONARY STATE
  172. 172EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY, CONTINUED
  173. 173LONG AND SHORT PERIODS
  174. 174EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY, CONTINUED
  175. 175EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY, CONTINUED
  176. 176EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY, CONTINUED
  177. 177EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY, CONTINUED
  178. 178EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY, CONTINUED
  179. 179CHAPTER VI.
  180. 180JOINT AND COMPOSITE DEMAND. JOINT AND COMPOSITE SUPPLY.
  181. 181JOINT AND COMPOSITE DEMAND AND SUPPLY
  182. 182DERIVED DEMAND PRICE
  183. 183DERIVED SUPPLY PRICE
  184. 184COMPOSITE SUPPLY PRICE
  185. 185V, VI, 6.
  186. 186COMPLEX CASES
  187. 187CHAPTER VII.
  188. 188PRIME AND TOTAL COST IN RELATION TO JOINT PRODUCTS
  189. 189COST OF MARKETING
  190. 190PRIME AND TOTAL COST IN RELATION TO JOINT PRODUCTS
  191. 191INSURANCE AGAINST RISK
  192. 192PRIME AND TOTAL COST IN RELATION TO JOINT PRODUCTS
  193. 193COST OF REPRODUCTION
  194. 194MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO VALUES. GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
  195. 195MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO VALUES
  196. 196ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE OF SUBSTITUTION
  197. 197AN APPROPRIATE DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES IS ASSUMED
  198. 198MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO VALUES. GENERAL PRINCIPLES, CONTINUED.
  199. 199- 27
  200. 200NATURE BLENDS ELEMENTS: SCIENCE ANALYSES COMPOUNDS
  201. 201V, 05-3.
  202. 202SCARCITY RENTS AND DIFFERENTIAL RENTS
  203. 203MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL VALUES.
  204. 204MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL VALUES
  205. 205MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL VALUES
  206. 206MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL VALUES
  207. 207THE INDIVIDUAL PRODUCER REGARDS LAND AS CAPITAL
  208. 208ILLUSTRATION FROM A TAX ON ALL AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE
  209. 209MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL VALUES
  210. 210IN REFERENCE TO A SINGLE CROP
  211. 211MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL VALUES
  212. 212QUASI-RENTS IN RELATION TO A SINGLE CROP
  213. 213V,, X56;
  214. 214CHAPTER XI. MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO URBAN VALUES.
  215. 215MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO URBAN VALUES
  216. 216INDIVIDUAL ENTERPRISE CREATING SITUATION VALUE
  217. 217MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO URBAN VALUES
  218. 218ASSOCIATED ENTERPRISE CREATING SITUATION VALUE
  219. 219MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO URBAN VALUES
  220. 220MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO URBAN VALUES
  221. 221GROUND RENTS FOR LONG LEASES
  222. 222MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO URBAN VALUES
  223. 223MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO URBAN VALUES
  224. 224MARGINAL COSTS IN RELATION TO URBAN VALUES
  225. 225EQUILIBRIUM WITH REFERENCE TO INCREASING RETURN
  226. 226EQUILIBRIUM WITH REFERENCE TO INCREASING RETURN
  227. 227INCIDENTS OF THE TENDENCY TO INCREASING RETURN
  228. 228V, 21, 8.
  229. 229EQUILIBRIUM WITH REFERENCE TO INCREASING RETURN
  230. 230CHANGES IN NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY
  231. 231DOCTRINE OF MAXIMUM SATISFACTION
  232. 232CHAPTER XIV. THE THEORY OF MONOPOLIES.
  233. 233THEORY OF MONOPOLIES
  234. 234EFFECTS OF A TAX OR A BOUNTY
  235. 235IMPORTANCE OF WELL-ORGANIZED PUBLIC STATISTICS
  236. 236COMPLEMENTARY MONOPOLIES
  237. 237CHAPTER XV.
  238. 238SUMMARY OF THE GENERAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY.
  239. 239EQUILIBRIUM OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY. SUMMARY 497
  240. 240SUMMARY OF THE GENERAL THEORY OF
  241. 241EQUILIBRIUM OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY
  242. 242VI, 1,1.
  243. 243BOOK VI.
  244. 244TIIE DISTRIBUTION OF THE NATIONAL INCOME.
  245. 245PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF DISTRIBUTION.
  246. 246PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF DISTRIBUTION
  247. 247THE PHYSIOCRATIC DOCTRINE OF WAGES. ADAM SMITH
  248. 248516 -
  249. 249RELATION OF MARGINAL USES TO VALUE
  250. 2509 615 35 684 180 435
  251. 25110 640 25 64 200 440
  252. 25212 676 16 564 240 436
  253. 253PROVISIONAL SUMMARY
  254. 254VI, 1, 10.
  255. 255CHAPTER, II.
  256. 256PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF DISTRIBUTION, CONTINUED.
  257. 257VI, 1, 2.
  258. 258VI, 1, 3.
  259. 259INFLUENCE OF REMUNERATION ON POWER TO WORK
  260. 260GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AS TO INTEREST
  261. 261CONCLUSION OF A STAGE OF THE ARGUMENT
  262. 262VI, 10, 2.
  263. 263EARNINGS OF LABOUR
  264. 264VI, 11, 4, 5.
  265. 265VI, 11, 6.
  266. 266UNCERTAINTY OF SUCCESS. IRREGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT 555
  267. 267VI, 10, 7, 8.
  268. 268INFLUENCE OF VARIETIES OF TEMPERAMENT
  269. 269CHAPTER IV. EARNINGS OF LABOUR, CONTINUED,
  270. 270EDUCATION IN THE WORKSHOP
  271. 271CHAPTER V. EARNINGS OF LABOUR, CONTINUED.
  272. 272FLUCTUATIONS OF EARNINGS
  273. 273FLUCTUATIONS IN EARNINGS OF LABOUR DEPEND ON DEMAND
  274. 274EARNINGS OF RARE NATURAL ABILITY
  275. 275CHAPTER VI. INTEREST OF CAPITAL.
  276. 276ECONOMIC DOCTRINE INTERPRETS COMMON EXPERIENCE
  277. 277INTEREST OF CAPITAL
  278. 278ECONOMIC DOCTRINE INTERPRETS COMMON EXPERIENCE
  279. 279GROSS AND NET INTEREST
  280. 280M. : 38
  281. 281RAISED BY ANTICIPATION OF INCREASE IN GENERAL PRICES
  282. 282CHAPTER VII. PROFITS OF CAPITAL AND BUSINESS POWER.
  283. 283PROFITS OF CAPITAL AND BUSINESS POWER
  284. 284COMPETITION FOR POSTS OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
  285. 285PROFITS OF CAPITAL AND BUSINESS POWER, CONTINUED.
  286. 286VARIATIONS IN THE RATE OF PROFITS PER ANNUM
  287. 287PROFITS ON THE TURNOVER ; 615
  288. 288M. : 40
  289. 289CHAPTER IX. RENT OF LAND.
  290. 290RENT OF LAND
  291. 291CHAPTER X. LAND TENURE.
  292. 292LAND TENURE
  293. 293PLASTICITY OF EARLY FORMS OF LAND TENURE
  294. 294M. ; 41
  295. 295PLASTICITY OF EARLY LAND TENURES. METAYAGE 643
  296. 296ENGLISH SYSTEM OF LAND TENURE ; 649
  297. 297CHAPTER XI. GENERAL VIEW OF DISTRIBUTION.
  298. 298A SUMMARY
  299. 299GENERAL VIEW OF DISTRIBUTION
  300. 300-CAUSES OF HIGH WAGES IN NEW COUNTRIES 669
  301. 301GENERAL INFLUENCES OF ECONOMIC PROGRESS
  302. 302LABOUR VALUES OF SOME LEADING COMMODITIES
  303. 303- CHANGES IN THE VALUE OF LAND 679
  304. 304GENERAL INFLUENCES OF ECONOMIC PKOGRESS
  305. 305CHAPTER XIII. PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE.
  306. 306PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  307. 307PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  308. 308PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  309. 309THE WASTEFULNESS OF OVERSTRAIN. DOUBLE SHIFTS 695
  310. 310PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  311. 311PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  312. 312STINTING OF OUTPUT CHECKS SUPPLY OF CAPITAL
  313. 313PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  314. 314DIFFICULTY OF TRACING CAUSES OF WAGE MOVEMENTS
  315. 315PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  316. 316PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  317. 317PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  318. 318PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  319. 319UNEMPLOYMENT CAUSED BY FLUCTUATIONS OF CREDIT
  320. 320NEED FOR PRESERVING FREE ENTERPRISE AND INITIATIVE
  321. 321PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  322. 322THE RESIDUUM. A MINIMUM WAGE 715
  323. 323EXCESSIVE SUPPLY OF HANDS WITHOUT BRAINS
  324. 3245)
  325. 325PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  326. 326PROGRESS IN RELATION TO STANDARDS OF LIFE
  327. 327APPENDIX A. THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE.
  328. 328INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL CAUSES AND CUSTOM
  329. 329APP, A, 1.
  330. 330THE-GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  331. 331INFLUENCE OF COLLECTIVE OWNERSHIP
  332. 332THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  333. 333APP, A, 4,
  334. 334THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  335. 335ROME
  336. 336APP. A, 4.
  337. 337THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  338. 338THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  339. 339THE TEUTONS. THE FREE CITIES 735
  340. 340THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  341. 341THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  342. 342THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  343. 343APP, A, 11.
  344. 344THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  345. 345INFLUENCE OF THE DESIRE FOR SPIRITUAL FREEDOM
  346. 346THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  347. 347THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  348. 348THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  349. 349THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  350. 350PROGRESS DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY TOL
  351. 351THE GROWTH OF FREE INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE
  352. 352EARLY ECONOMIC THOUGHT
  353. 353APP, B, 1.
  354. 354APP, B, 2.
  355. 355THE PHYSIOCRATS TOT:
  356. 356APP, B, 3.
  357. 357APP. B, 4,
  358. 358"
  359. 359APP, B, 7.
  360. 360APP. B, 8.
  361. 361APPENDIX C1.
  362. 362THE SCOPE AND METHOD OF ECONOMICS.
  363. 363APP. C, 2.
  364. 364THE SCOPE AND METHOD OF ECONOMICS
  365. 365ANALYSIS NEEDED FOR READING LESSONS OF PAST TIMES
  366. 366APP, D, 2.
  367. 367USES OF ABSTRACT REASONING IN ECONOMICS
  368. 368ABUSES OF IMAGINATION AND ITS SOVEREIGN USES
  369. 369APP. B, 2.
  370. 370DEFINITIONS OF CAPITAL
  371. 371BARTER
  372. 372:
  373. 373APP. G, 1.
  374. 374THE INCIDENCE OF LOCAL RATES, WITH SOME SUGGESTIONS AS TO POLICY.
  375. 375INCIDENCE OF LOCAL RATES
  376. 376RATES ON SITE VALUES. RURAL RATES 801
  377. 377APP. G, 8.
  378. 378PUBLIC POLICY. A FRESH AIR RATE 803
  379. 379LIMITATIONS OF THE USE OF STATICAL ASSUMPTIONS IN REGARD TO INCREASING RETURN.
  380. 380IN REGARD TO INCREASING RETURN
  381. 381APP. H, 3.
  382. 382LIMITATIONS OF THE USE OF STATICAL ASSUMPTIONS
  383. 383LIMITATIONS OF THE USE OF STATICAL ASSUMPTIONS
  384. 384APP. H, 4.
  385. 385PROBLEMS RELATING TO INCREASING RETURN
  386. 386APPENDIX J.
  387. 387THE DOCTRINE OF THE WAGES-FUND.
  388. 388ORIGIN OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE WAGES-FUND
  389. 389THE DOCTRINE OF THE WAGES-FUND
  390. 390CORRELATION OF PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
  391. 391APPENDIX K. CERTAIN KINDS OF SURPLUS.
  392. 392CERTAIN KINDS OF SURPLUS
  393. 393APP. L,
  394. 394TAXES AND IMPROVEMENTS IN AGRICULTURE
  395. 395MATHEMATICAL APPENDIX.
  396. 396: TM

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Principles of Economics

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