Selections from the Complete Treatise on Agricultural Administration

Foundations of Agriculture

Shennong was also known as the Flame Emperor, and he named his officials after fire. He cut wood to make plowshares and bent wood to make plow handles, teaching the people how to use these implements for plowing and weeding. He was the first to instruct people in cultivation, and for this reason he was called Shennong, the Divine Farmer.

The Baihu Tong states: "In ancient times, people lived entirely on the flesh of birds and beasts. When Shennong appeared, he made use of the seasons ordained by Heaven, distinguished the advantages offered by different kinds of land, fashioned plows and plowshares, and taught the people to cultivate the fields. Through his extraordinary wisdom, he transformed their way of life and enabled them to live in accordance with their circumstances. Therefore he was called Shennong."

The Dianyu states: "Shennong tasted plants to distinguish the different grains, enabling the multitude to eat cereals." Later generations, down to the present day, have depended upon his achievement.

There is a star called the Old Farmer southwest of the Northern Dipper. It represents an elderly farmer presiding over cultivation and harvesting. Its astrological significance is approximately the same as that of the Chaff Star. It lies near the Pestle Star at the edge of the lunar mansion Ji. Human activities take place below, while celestial phenomena respond above. The agricultural stars may well have originated from this correspondence.

Houji's personal name was Qi, meaning "the Abandoned One." Even as a child, Qi displayed the aspirations of a remarkable man. In his games he delighted in planting hemp and wheat. When he reached adulthood, his interest in cultivation became even stronger. He examined the suitability of different soils and cultivated grain wherever conditions were favorable. The people all followed his example. When Emperor Yao heard of him, he appointed him Master of Agriculture.

Emperor Shun said: "Qi, the common people are suffering from hunger. As Houji, you must sow the various grains at the proper seasons."

The Book of Songs says:

"Reverent and accomplished was Houji, Worthy to stand beside Heaven. He established our multitude of people; There is none who does not follow your example. Heaven commanded the nurturing of all. The lands below came under his care, And he enabled the people to cultivate and harvest."

The poem "Seventh Month" in the Airs of Bin describes the hardships through which the royal enterprise was established. The Zhou dynasty founded its state upon agriculture, and its achievements truly began with Houji. The rites by which Houji was honored with sacrifices as a companion of Heaven and at the altars of earth and grain were expressions of the reverence later generations felt for his merits and virtues. They became enduring institutions that would never be abandoned through countless generations.

I have heard that farmers in antiquity used wooden plows and plowshares, with two men working together as a pair. All cultivation depended upon human strength. It was not until the Spring and Autumn period that oxen began to be employed in plowing.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas states: "Shujun, a grandson of Houji, was the first to devise plowing with oxen." This is the origin of the practice.

I have also examined the celestial correspondence of the ox. Its constellation is located in the chou position among the twenty-eight lunar mansions, a correspondence established in ancient times. Since the ox is associated with chou, it is appropriate to sacrifice to the Ox Mansion during that month and to instruct people to provide their cattle with additional vegetables and beans, strengthening them in preparation for spring plowing.

The Treatise on Food and Commerce in the Book of Han states: "Houji was the first to establish furrow cultivation, with two plowshares operated together."

The Bibliographical Treatise states: "The Agricultural School comprised nine authors and 141 chapters. Its tradition probably originated with the officials responsible for agriculture and grain. They sowed the various cereals, encouraged cultivation and sericulture, and thereby ensured an adequate supply of food and clothing."

The Guanzi states:

"When Guan Zhong set about bringing order to the world, he classified soils according to depths measured in units of seven feet.

"In the soil where the cultivated earth is thoroughly transformed and all five grains can flourish, the underlying formation stands firm. Its suitable trees include various hardy species, including juniper and thorny trees; its grasses include thorn bushes.

"When such soil is encountered, it is called the fifth depth. Five times seven equals thirty-five feet, the depth at which water is reached. The sound produced when calling into the well corresponds to the musical note jue. Its water is dark green, and its people are strong.

"Red, firm, and fertile loam is suitable for all five grains. Its hemp is white, its cloth yellow, its grasses include white cogongrass and reeds, and its trees include red crabapple.

"This is called the fourth depth. Four times seven equals twenty-eight feet before reaching water. The sound corresponds to the note shang. Its water is white and sweet, and its inhabitants enjoy longevity.

"Yellow soil is generally unsuitable for crops, except broomcorn millet and glutinous millet. It is suited to elevated marshy ground. Cultivation there must follow the terrain, but the moist earth frequently collapses, making it difficult to establish settlements or permanent fields.

"Its grasses include millet and cogongrass, and its trees include the tree-of-heaven and mulberry.

"This is called the third depth. Three times seven equals twenty-one feet before reaching water. The sound corresponds to the note gong. Its spring water is yellow, turbid, and liable to shift its course.

"Saline, filled soil is suitable for large beans and wheat. Its grasses include certain marsh plants and reeds, while its trees include wolfberry.

"This is called the second depth. Twice seven equals fourteen feet before reaching water. The sound corresponds to the note yu. Its spring water is salty and flows through shifting channels.

"Black, compact soil is suitable for rice and wheat. Its grasses include duckweed and other aquatic plants, while its trees include white crabapple.

"This is called the first depth. At seven feet, water is reached. The sound corresponds to the note zhi. Its water is black and bitter."

"When one listens to the note zhi, it resembles the startled cry of a pig suddenly awakened.

"The note yu resembles a horse neighing in the open fields." Another version says, "a bird singing in a tree."

"The note gong resembles the lowing of an ox in an underground chamber.

"The note shang resembles the bleating of a sheep separated from its flock.

"The note jue resembles a pheasant perched in a tree and calling, its voice rapid and clear.

"In generating the five musical notes, the procedure begins by establishing the fundamental number, multiplying it by three, and combining the divisions according to the numerical principles of nine. From this is generated the fundamental pitch of Huangzhong, which establishes gong.

"Adding one-third produces the number 108 and generates zhi. Subtracting one-third in the prescribed proportion produces shang. By again applying the threefold division and returning to the proper numerical position, yu is produced. A further subtraction of one-third generates jue."

"The soil called Fenyan belongs to the sixth depth: six times seven, or forty-two feet, before reaching water.

"The soil called Shanzhifang belongs to the seventh depth: seven times seven, or forty-nine feet.

"Sixian belongs to the eighth depth: eight times seven, or fifty-six feet.

"Duling belongs to the ninth depth: nine times seven, or sixty-three feet.

"Yanling belongs to the tenth depth: seventy feet.

"Huanling belongs to the eleventh depth: seventy-seven feet.

"Man Mountain belongs to the twelfth depth: eighty-four feet.

"Fu Mountain belongs to the thirteenth depth: ninety-one feet.

"The white-soiled part of Fu Mountain belongs to the fourteenth depth: ninety-eight feet.

"Zhongling belongs to the fifteenth depth: 105 feet.

"Green Mountain belongs to the sixteenth depth: 112 feet. This is described as the dwelling place of the Azure Dragon.