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Science
The Grammar of Science
Édition BooksWhale en anglais par Karl Pearson
A foundational philosophy-of-science work on method, causation, measurement, and scientific knowledge.
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Introduction du livre
The Grammar of Science
The Grammar of Science examines scientific method, causation, law, classification, measurement, and the relation between observation and knowledge. Karl Pearson’s English original remains important for readers of science history, philosophy of science, statistics, and modern empirical thought.
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Karl Pearson died in 1936, and The Grammar of Science was first published in 1892; these dates support the public-domain basis for this original English edition.
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The Grammar of Science
Karl Pearson
Chapitre d'aperçuPREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITIONAperçu
DURING the eight years which have elapsed since this Grammar was first published, the views expounded in it have undoubtedly met with wider acceptance than the author in the least anticipated. There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude materialism of the older physicists. More than one professor of metaphysics has
Chapitre d'aperçuactually discovered that he can best attack " modern "Aperçu
science by criticising ancient statements as to mechanism from a standpoint remarkably similar to that of the Grammar. Step by step men of science are coming to recognise that mechanism is not at the bottom of phenomena, but is only the conceptual shorthand by aid of which they can briefly describe and resume phenomena. That all science is description and not explanation, that t the mystery of change in the inorganic world is just as / great and just as omnipresent as in the organic world,/ are statements which will appear platitudes to the next/ generation. Formerly men had belief as to the super- sensuous, and thought they had knowledge of the sensuous. The science of the future, while agnostic as to the supersensuous, will replace knowledge by belief in the perceptual sphere, and reserve the term knowledge for the rnnrqptnal sphere — the region of their own concepts and ideas — of ether, atom, organic corpuscle, and
vital force — of physical and plasmic mechanics. That this change of view as to the basis of science cannot take place without misunderstanding,1 or without giving an opportunity to those who dislike science to decry its weaknesses, is only natural. To change the basis of operations during a campaign always gives a chance to the enemy, but the chance must be risked if thereby we place ourselves permanently in a position of greater strength for offence and defence. If the reader questions whether there is still war between science and dogma, I must reply that there always will be as long as know- ledge is opposed to ignorance. To know requires exertion, and it is intellectually easiest to shirk effort altogether by accepting phrases which cloak the unknown in the undefinable.
Meanwhile the need for remodelling the fundamental mechanical principles as we find them stated in elementary text-books of physics and dynamics remains as urgent as ever. Professor A. E. H. Love is, indeed, to be con- gratulated in having in his Theoretical Mechanics'* ventured a good way in the right direction, but his work will hardly be used for elementary science teaching, and it is through the latter only that we can hope to give the new and sounder scientific conceptions general currency. For the present the Grammar may yet be of service. After an eight years' life and an issue of some 4000 copies, it reappears in a revised and enlarged form. The chief additions are Chapters X. and XI., dealing with funda- mental conceptions in the field of biological science. The progress in this direction during the last few years
1 See, for example, Mr. St. George Mivart's attack on the present work as essentially materialistic \-Fortnightly Review, 1896.
2 Cambridge University Press, 1897. That a -well-known Harvard Professor should have used the Grammar as a basis for the term's discussions in his post-graduate Seminar is another hopeful sign that many minds are being stirred to reconsider the fundamental concepts of science.
enables me to define several of these conceptions much more accurately than was possible in 1892, and to indicate, if only in vague outline, what a fascinating field is being here transferred from the synoptic to the precise division of science (p. 5 1 3). Many changes have been made in the wording, but few in the substance of the earlier parts of this book. For valuable suggestions in
Table des matières
Dans cette édition
- 01Full text
- 02PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
- 03actually discovered that he can best attack " modern "
- 04Chapters X. and XI. I have to thank Mr. Francis Galton,
- 05PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
- 06book is primarily intended as a criticism of the funda-
- 07CHAPTER I
- 08INTRODUCTORY — THE SCOPE AND METHOD OF
- 09SCIENCE
- 10i
- 11X —
- 12INTRODUCTORY n
- 13action !) ; the post-Kantians (notably Hegel and Schopenhauer), and their
- 14INTRODUCTORY
- 15INTRODUCTORY
- 16action — we have a result which, if of striking interest to
- 17INTRODUCTORY
- 18SUMMARY
- 19LITERATURE
- 20CHAPTER II
- 21THE FACTS OF SCIENCE
- 22actions on my part appear of totally different character —
- 23actual relations between the psychical and physical aspects
- 24actually been deduced by a majority of normal human
- 25particular to the chapters on inference and induction in
- 26actually get to this supposed world outside ourselves ? Just
- 27particular network of wires, so ours is conditioned by our
- 28activity of certain optic nerves. These sense-impressions
- 29part of that group of sense-impressions which I term
- 30Chapter VII.
- 31SUMMARY
- 32LITERATURE
- 33CHAPTER III
- 34THE SCIENTIFIC LAW
- 35particular time ; what is moral is what tends to the welfare
- 36Chapter VIII.
- 37particular classes of sense-impressions — being like auto-
- 38act for any coin but a penny — and having received their
- 39partly conditioned by the simplicity of the modes in
- 40acter that, when a confused heap of stones was thrown in
- 41THE SCIENTIFIC LAW i 1 1
- 42SUMMARY
- 43LITERATURE
- 44CHAPTER IV
- 45CAUSE AND EFFECT PROBABILITY
- 46CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 115
- 47I
- 48CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY j i 7
- 49action, the will of a living agent. I take up a stone ; no one
- 50CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 119
- 51act of will. Still speaking in the popular sense, we will
- 52CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 121
- 53particles influence each other's motion. Even if gravita-
- 54CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 123
- 55action, habit, instinct, etc. In this case both sense-
- 56CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 125
- 57acts of will as secondary causes in -a long sequence, as
- 58action might be described " mechanically." This would
- 59CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 127
- 60CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 129
- 61particular order of the stages in the sequence as in the
- 62CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 131
- 63CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 133
- 64CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 135
- 65CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 137
- 66CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 139
- 67CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 141
- 68CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 143
- 69CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 145
- 70CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 147
- 71CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 149
- 72SUMMARY
- 73CAUSE AND EFFECT— PROBABILITY 151
- 74LITERATURE
- 75CHAPTER V
- 76SPACE AND TIME
- 77part ii.).
- 78actions of royalty, this association of conceptions is
- 79book appears to be separated from the air above it by a
- 80SPACE AND TIMi; 173
- 81parts of bodies, involving the idea of discontinuity, is one
- 82190 THE 'GRAMMAR OF SCIENCE
- 83SUMMARY
- 84LITERATURE
- 85CHAPTER VI
- 86THE GEOMETRY OF MOTION
- 87action between the parts of the chair changes, when it is
- 88THE GEOMETRY OF MOTION
- 892OI
- 9011 IK GEOMETRY OF MOTION 203
- 912O4
- 92actually occurring in the world of phenomena. Once
- 932IO
- 94rH KENSINGTON
- 95part i.
- 96actual speed will be measured by the slope of the tangent
- 9722O
- 98V14
- 99actually stretched and spun.1 Either method of treating
- 100actually added per unit of time in the given direction to
- 101U2
- 102P P' — P P 4- P P'
- 103actual velocities always form the three sides of a triangle
- 104SUMMARY
- 105LITERATURE
- 106part. i. " Kinematics," chaps, i.-iii., v. and vii. London, 1887.
- 107CHAPTER VII
- 108MATTER
- 109Chapter V. we saw that space and time did not themselves
- 110MATTER 241
- 111MATTER 243
- 112book provides us with practically the same definition.
- 113MATTER 245
- 114MATTER 247
- 115MATTER 249
- 116MATTER 251
- 117MATTER 253
- 118MATTER 255
- 119WAVE II
- 120MATTER 257
- 121parts of our body and of external bodies. But it is
- 122MATTER 259
- 123parts put in relative motion. Further, from Professor
- 124MATTER 261
- 125MATTER 263
- 126parts ; on the other hand, the water is separated by the
- 127action — is only a conceptual limit. Such a fluid is
- 128MATTER 265
- 129particular types of motion in the following manner : Take
- 130partially turned round its ball-and-socket joint, will tend
- 131particles render steam visible ; but we might blow air-
- 132MATTER 267
- 133particles, the mass of either corresponding to the mean
- 134MATTER 269
- 135MATTER
- 136MATTER 273
- 137action at a distance of millions of miles, we should still
- 138MATTER 275
- 139particles, the changes of position of which we associate
- 140SUMMARY
- 141LITERATURE
- 142MATTER
- 143CHAPTER VIII
- 144THE LAWS OF MOTION
- 145particle ? He has never perceived the limiting quantity,
- 146particles those more complex motions by aid of which
- 147particle is made use of by Newton in the statement of
- 148#*.# *•*•* ****** **»A«»* "•**'
- 149particle to ether-element ? Shall we find our conceptual
- 150particles. Individual corpuscles dance in groups, groups
- 151particle than to a sun particle, and again the phenomenon
- 152particles of different pieces. Hence we conclude that :
- 153action between adjacent ether-elements. We should then
- 154particular discussion, the field.
- 155Chapter VI. (p. 206) we saw that motion is meaningless
- 156particular type of ether -motion which constitutes gross
- 157action between two prime-atoms. In both cases the
- 158particle.
- 159introduction of the relative velocity as a factor determin-
- 160particles at a distance.
- 161action between particles at a distance is to be considered
- 162parts of the same river, with which we are unacquainted.
- 163chapter, the reader is not to understand that B enforces A's change in motion.
- 164Chapter VII. the reader will easily appreciate how idle is
- 165partly on the attention it is paying to the presence of a
- 166THE LAWS OF MOTION
- 167action and reaction between the elementary parts of those
- 168parts on each other we must, then, deduce by aid of the
- 169action and reaction between ether and gross " matter "
- 170particles, we have still to ask how the geometrical forms
- 171particle. If we take any homogeneous substance as a
- 172particle. In the phenomenon of gravitation aspect does
- 173action : Tlie parallelogram of forces is not a synthesis by
- 174particles seem to be uninfluenced by the presence of a
- 175introduction of a third atom C may even reverse the sense
- 176chapter. They are stated generally of bodies, and appear
- 177chapters is frequently entitled, Motion of a Body under
- 178particles by which we conceptually construct the body.
- 179particle. In the next place, the law is very wanting in
- 180particles there is no acceleration. This is the important
- 181action of two bodies is more complex than a reader just
- 182SUMMARY
- 183LITERATURE
- 184CHAPTER IX
- 185LIFE
- 186LIFE 329
- 187LIFE 331
- 188chapter has been included in our volume.
- 189LIFE 333
- 190LIFE 337
- 191LIFE 339
- 192LIFE 341
- 193LIFE 343
- 194LIFE 345
- 195LIFE 347
- 196LIFE 349
- 197LIFI. 353
- 198LIFE
- 199LIFE 357
- 200LIFE 359
- 201part real, and due to the fact that in the early stages of
- 202LIFE 361
- 203LIFE 363
- 204LIFE 365
- 205partially dormant socialistic spirit, if we as a nation are to
- 206parties will be able in the future to differentiate themselves. The due balance
- 207LIFE 369
- 208partial " solidarity of humanity " which involves a pro-
- 209SUMMARY
- 210particular, how it is related to that physical selection of more stable inorganic
- 211LITERATURE
- 212Chapter I.). London, 1884.
- 213LIFE 371
- 214CHAPTER X
- 215EVOLUTION (VARIATION AND SELECTION)
- 216parts of one beech tree, and twenty to thirty leaves from a
- 2172O
- 218EVOLUTION
- 219II
- 220BEECH LEAVES. FREQUENCY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEAVES
- 221ii
- 222i
- 223I
- 224POPPY CAPSULES. FREQUENCY OF DIFFERENT SERIES OF STIGMATIC
- 225BANDS
- 226TTU
- 227i
- 228EVOLUTION
- 229INDIVIDUALS AND IN A
- 230LOCAL RA
- 231(//O
- 232I
- 233V
- 234V
- 235X
- 236ll
- 237'--I*/)
- 238I-2I3
- 239POPPIES, STIGMATIC BANDS
- 240EVOLUTION
- 241ii
- 242ii
- 243ii
- 244i
- 245II
- 246i
- 247I78
- 248II
- 249II
- 250J3
- 251ii
- 252i
- 2533P8
- 254III
- 255ii
- 2562SO
- 257IO
- 2582 2OO
- 259ii
- 260i
- 261II
- 262IS
- 263IO
- 264II
- 26522OO
- 2667-II
- 267IO. 12
- 268EVOLUTION
- 2695 6 7 8 9 10 11 JZ 13 J4- /5 J6
- 270V
- 271IS
- 272IB
- 273D
- 274A
- 275J
- 276E)1
- 277V
- 278B
- 279[TABLE
- 280Q
- 281X
- 282H
- 283M
- 284W
- 285O
- 286Q
- 287Q
- 2881O O
- 2896 A A A :
- 290ill
- 2910H
- 2922 S
- 293•S B
- 294« 2 S
- 295K-
- 296«• S ."
- 297parts more closely associated with each other than with
- 298parts.
- 299acter? Frankly I must confess that no statement on this
- 300particular character.
- 301i
- 302II
- 303M
- 304IOO
- 305IOO
- 306IOO
- 307EVOLUTION
- 3081X3 + 56789 k/0 // JZ 13 14- 15 J6 17
- 309SUMMARY
- 310LITERATURE
- 311CHAPTER XI
- 312EVOLUTION (REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE)
- 313chapter, we are likely to slip into obscure statements.
- 314i
- 315I
- 316i
- 317I
- 318II
- 319I
- 320i
- 321O
- 322i
- 323i
- 324I
- 325i
- 3262O
- 327I
- 328acter, here there is no true quantitative scale at all ; our
- 329EVOLUTION
- 330N
- 331N
- 332N
- 333N
- 334»4X«I6
- 335N
- 336N
- 337N
- 338N
- 339EVOLUTION
- 340EVOLUTION
- 341ii
- 342M
- 343J8
- 344i
- 345ii
- 346i
- 347ii
- 348J3
- 349M
- 350J9
- 351acter, as by counting, weighing, or otherwise measuring the seed from the
- 352acter for a given form of life. Thus it seems possible to
- 353EVOLUTION
- 354acters. I cannot doubt the existence of genetic
- 355D F
- 356part represented by AaF. Now there is scarcely any
- 357parthenogenetic mother, and of course still more variability
- 358parts of an individual are not identical. What is the
- 359T-
- 360m
- 361K
- 362•R
- 363SS
- 364K
- 365i
- 366K
- 367m
- 368d
- 369U
- 370K
- 371m
- 372O
- 373m
- 374•O
- 375i
- 376C
- 377V?
- 378i
- 3795J
- 3805J
- 381•J34
- 382.4S42±.0230
- 383books, but only the fecundity, i.e. the ratio of foals surviv-
- 384parthenogenetic reproduction, and further in the un-
- 385acters. Again, let \, 28> 28, . . . 210 . . . be the standard
- 386" H10+
- 387J
- 388EVOLUTION
- 389.ICOO
- 390INVOLUTION
- 391TAKI.K OK COLLATERAL HEREDITY
- 392.I5CO
- 393EVOLUTION
- 394I
- 395i
- 396acter differing Ht from the type be selected, the offspring
- 397EVOLUTION
- 398TABLE OF PEDIGREE STOCK
- 399•M59
- 400I
- 401actual correlation observed will be |- unity or .5. Simi-
- 402TABLE OF INTENSITIES OF INHERITANCE
- 403INVOLUTION
- 404INTENSITY OF EVE-COLOUR INHERITANCE
- 405EVOLUTION
- 406acters and organs of the individual. Looked at from
- 407«- I\2 _.2C
- 408EVOLUTION
- 409'I 55
- 410I65
- 411DIAGRAM C.IVIM, -IIIK
- 412DI-ATH FOK A BH
- 413IOOC
- 414I.I. D
- 415MKAN A(,E OF A MAN Ai
- 416T
- 417i
- 418L
- 419i
- 420i
- 421•AT
- 422i
- 423S
- 424-X
- 425B
- 426i
- 427i
- 428i
- 429i
- 430A
- 431i
- 432i
- 43345 SO 55 60 65 70 75 8O 85 80 95 1OO 105
- 434SUMMARY
- 435LITERATURE
- 436chapter, I may specially mention : —
- 437Particularly the essay on Reproductive Selection.
- 438CHAPTER XII
- 439THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES
- 440HUMAN LEARNING
- 441I
- 442P
- 443F
- 444S"
- 445S
- 446li
- 447II
- 448"**T3
- 449Q
- 450VT
- 451F
- 452F
- 453K
- 454V
- 455Z
- 456B
- 457i
- 458K
- 459S'
- 460F
- 461B
- 46273 B
- 463F
- 464I
- 465I
- 466i
- 467P
- 468F
- 469HIP'
- 470T
- 471i
- 472I
- 473activity. Paramount as the theory of our emotional nature, studied
- 474Chapter III., " Definitive Systematisation of the Positive Doctrine," in vol.
- 475nil. CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES 515
- 476I. I
- 477GENERAL RELATIONS OF
- 478RELATIONS PECULIAR TO SPACE AND
- 479O
- 480O
- 481S
- 482particles, a conceptual mechanism which describes astro-
- 483part — describing without quantitative calculation the
- 484THE v LASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES 521
- 485particularly the case in the sciences which deal with the
- 486Till-: CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIK.NCKS 523
- 487O
- 488I
- 489O
- 490W
- 491H
- 492S-
- 493il
- 494ill
- 495P
- 496•S N
- 497I 5.S-
- 498S'
- 499HI
- 500I
- 501ill
- 502I
- 503Till-. CLASSIFICATION OK TH1. Mil 525
- 504actual perceptual experience. It is not to be taken as an
- 505SPACE
- 506TIME
- 507Actions.
- 508O.OS
- 509»3 «S* **•>
- 510V I
- 511E
- 512IB
- 513III
- 514J
- 515B
- 516'S
- 517c
- 518c
- 519K
- 520i
- 521O
- 522"" S" §"
- 523III
- 524i
- 525R
- 526IQ
- 527K
- 528I"
- 529K'
- 530V
- 531S
- 532I
- 533IP
- 534THE CLASSIFICATION OF T1IK SCIENCES 527
- 535JNN
- 536SUMMARY
- 5375 HA S A/0T H'#P>Pff'/S£
- 538LITERATURE
- 539APPENDIX
- 540NOTE I
- 541A CD B
- 542NOTE II
- 543NOTE III
- 544NOTE IV
- 545NOTE V
- 546NOTE VI
- 547NOTE VII
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